what was washingtons response to the whiskey rebellion

Tax revolt in the United states from 1791 to 1794

Whiskey Rebellion
George Washington reviews the troops most Fort Cumberland, Maryland, earlier their march to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania.
Date 1791–1794 Location primarily Western Pennsylvania Result Government victory Armed resistance eliminated Pocket-sized tax evasion
Belligerents
Frontier tax protesters	United States
Commanders and leaders
James McFarlane	George Washington Henry Lee Three Alexander Hamilton
Units involved
Rebels	Land militia from: Virginia Maryland New Jersey Pennsylvania Regular army
Forcefulness
600 Pennsylvania rebels	13,000 Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey and Pennsylvania militia x regular army troops
Casualties and losses
iii–4 killed 170 captured[1]	None; About 12 died from illness or in accidents[2]
2 noncombatant casualties

The Whiskey Rebellion (too known every bit the Whiskey Insurrection) was a violent tax protest in the Us starting time in 1791 and catastrophe in 1794 during the presidency of George Washington, ultimately nether the command of American Revolutionary War veteran Major James McFarlane. The so-called "whiskey taxation" was the first tax imposed on a domestic production by the newly formed federal authorities. Beer was difficult to transport and spoiled more than easily than rum and whiskey. Rum distillation in the United States had been disrupted during the Revolutionary War, and whiskey distribution and consumption increased after the Revolutionary War (amass product had not surpassed rum past 1791). The "whiskey tax" became law in 1791, and was intended to generate acquirement for the state of war debt incurred during the Revolutionary State of war. The tax applied to all distilled spirits, but consumption of American whiskey was rapidly expanding in the belatedly 18th century, so the excise became widely known as a "whiskey revenue enhancement".^[3] Farmers of the western frontier were accustomed to distilling their surplus rye, barley, wheat, corn, or fermented grain mixtures to brand whiskey. These farmers resisted the taxation. In these regions, whiskey often served equally a medium of substitution. Many of the resisters were war veterans who believed that they were fighting for the principles of the American Revolution, in particular against taxation without local representation, while the federal regime maintained that the taxes were the legal expression of Congressional revenue enhancement powers.

Throughout Western Pennsylvania counties, protesters used violence and intimidation to prevent federal officials from collecting the revenue enhancement. Resistance came to a climax in July 1794, when a U.s.a. marshal arrived in western Pennsylvania to serve writs to distillers who had not paid the excise. The warning was raised, and more than than 500 armed men attacked the fortified home of revenue enhancement inspector General John Neville. Washington responded by sending peace commissioners to western Pennsylvania to negotiate with the rebels, while at the same time calling on governors to ship a militia force to enforce the revenue enhancement. Washington himself rode at the head of an army to suppress the insurgency, with 13,000 militiamen provided by the governors of Virginia, Maryland, New Bailiwick of jersey, and Pennsylvania. The rebels all went home before the arrival of the ground forces, and at that place was no confrontation. About 20 men were arrested, merely all were subsequently acquitted or pardoned. Most distillers in nearby Kentucky were found to be all but incommunicable to tax—in the next six years, over 175 distillers from Kentucky were convicted of violating the tax police force.^[four] Numerous examples of resistance are recorded in court documents and newspaper accounts.^[v]

The Whiskey Rebellion demonstrated that the new national government had the will and power to suppress violent resistance to its laws, though the whiskey excise remained difficult to collect. The events contributed to the formation of political parties in the United States, a procedure already under fashion. The whiskey tax was repealed in the early 1800s during the Jefferson administration. Historian Carol Berkin argues that the episode, in the long run, strengthened U.s.a. nationalism because the people appreciated how well Washington handled the rebels without resorting to tyranny.^[6]

Whiskey tax

A new U.Due south. federal government began operating in 1789, following the ratification of the U.s. Constitution. The previous central authorities under the Articles of Confederation had been unable to levy taxes; it had borrowed money to meet expenses and fund the Revolutionary War, accumulating $54 1000000 in debt. The state governments had amassed an additional $25 million in debt.^[seven] Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton sought to use this debt to create a financial system that would promote American prosperity and national unity. In his Written report on Public Credit, he urged Congress to consolidate the state and national debts into a unmarried debt that would be funded past the federal authorities. Congress approved these measures in June and July 1790.^[8]

A source of government revenue was needed to pay the respectable amount due to the previous bondholders to whom the debt was owed. Past Dec 1790, Hamilton believed that import duties, which were the government'due south primary source of acquirement, had been raised as high as feasible.^[9] He therefore promoted passage of an excise tax on domestically produced distilled spirits. This was to be the first tax levied by the national authorities on a domestic product.^[ten] The transportation costs per gallon were higher for farmers removed from eastern urban centers, and so the per-gallon profit was reduced disproportionately by the per-gallon tax on distillation of domestic alcohol such as whiskey. The excise became known equally the "whiskey taxation." Taxes were politically unpopular, and Hamilton believed that the whiskey excise was a luxury taxation and would be the least objectionable revenue enhancement that the authorities could levy.^[11] In this, he had the back up of some social reformers, who hoped that a "sin tax" would enhance public awareness about the harmful effects of booze.^[12] The whiskey excise human action, sometimes known every bit the "Whiskey Act", became police force in March 1791.^[13] George Washington divers the revenue districts, appointed the revenue supervisors and inspectors, and set their pay in November 1791.^[14]

Western grievances

The population of Western Pennsylvania was 17,000 in 1790.^[15] Among the farmers in the region, the whiskey excise was immediately controversial, with many people on the frontier arguing that information technology unfairly targeted westerners.^[16] Whiskey was a popular drink, and farmers often supplemented their incomes by operating small-scale stills.^[17] Farmers living due west of the Appalachian Mountains distilled their excess grain into whiskey, which was easier and more assisting to transport over the mountains than the more than cumbersome grain. A whiskey taxation would make western farmers less competitive with eastern grain producers.^[18] Additionally, cash was always in short supply on the frontier, and so whiskey oft served as a medium of exchange. For poorer people who were paid in whiskey, the excise was essentially an income tax that wealthier easterners did not pay.^[nineteen]

Small-scale farmers also protested that Hamilton's excise finer gave unfair tax breaks to big distillers, most of whom were based in the east. There were ii methods of paying the whiskey excise: paying a flat fee or paying by the gallon. Big distillers produced whiskey in volume and could beget the apartment fee. The more efficient they became, the less tax per gallon they would pay (as depression equally 6 cents, co-ordinate to Hamilton). Western farmers who owned small stills did not normally operate them year-circular at full capacity, and then they concluded up paying a higher tax per gallon (nine cents), which fabricated them less competitive.^[20] The regressive nature of the tax was further compounded by an additional factor: whiskey sold for considerably less on the cash-poor Western frontier than in the wealthier and more populous East. This meant that, fifty-fifty if all distillers had been required to pay the aforementioned amount of tax per gallon, the small-calibration frontier distillers would nonetheless accept to remit a considerably larger proportion of their production'due south value than larger Eastern distillers. Pocket-size-scale distillers believed that Hamilton deliberately designed the taxation to ruin them and promote big business, a view endorsed by some historians.^[21] Nonetheless, historian Thomas Slaughter argued that a "conspiracy of this sort is difficult to certificate".^[22] Whether past design or not, large distillers recognized the advantage that the excise gave them and they supported it.^[23]

Other aspects of the excise constabulary also caused concern. The constabulary required all stills to be registered, and those cited for failure to pay the tax had to appear in distant Federal, rather than local courts. The only Federal courthouse was in Philadelphia, some 300 miles away from the small frontier settlement of Pittsburgh. From the beginning, the Federal authorities had picayune success in collecting the whiskey taxation along the frontier. Many small western distillers simply refused to pay the revenue enhancement. Federal revenue officers and local residents who assisted them bore the brunt of the protesters' ire. Tax rebels harassed several whiskey tax collectors and threatened or beat those who offered them office infinite or housing. As a issue, many western counties never had a resident Federal tax official.^[24]

In addition to the whiskey tax, westerners had a number of other grievances with the national regime, chief amid which was the perception that the government was not adequately protecting the residents living in the western borderland.^[24] The Northwest Indian War was going badly for the Us, with major losses in 1791. Furthermore, westerners were prohibited by Kingdom of spain (which then owned Louisiana) from using the Mississippi River for commercial navigation. Until these issues were addressed, westerners felt that the government was ignoring their security and economic welfare. Adding the whiskey excise to these existing grievances only increased tensions on the frontier.^[25]

Resistance

Many residents of the western borderland petitioned against passage of the whiskey excise. When that failed, some western Pennsylvanians organized extralegal conventions to abet repeal of the law.^[26] Opposition to the tax was specially prevalent in iv southwestern counties: Allegheny, Fayette, Washington, and Westmoreland.^[27] A preliminary coming together held on July 27, 1791, at Redstone Old Fort in Fayette County chosen for the selection of delegates to a more formal assembly, which convened in Pittsburgh in early September 1791. The Pittsburgh convention was dominated by moderates such as Hugh Henry Brackenridge, who hoped to prevent the outbreak of violence.^[28] The convention sent a petition for redress of grievances to the Pennsylvania Assembly and the U.S. Business firm of Representatives, both located in Philadelphia.^[29] As a result of this and other petitions, the excise law was modified in May 1792. Changes included a 1-cent reduction in the tax that was advocated by William Findley, a congressman from western Pennsylvania, but the new excise law was all the same unsatisfactory to many westerners.^[30]

Appeals to irenic resistance were unsuccessful. On September 11, 1791, a recently appointed revenue enhancement collector named Robert Johnson was tarred and feathered past a disguised gang in Washington County.^[31] A man sent by officials to serve court warrants to Johnson's attackers was whipped, tarred, and feathered.^[32] Because of these and other violent attacks, the tax went uncollected in 1791 and early 1792.^[33] The attackers modeled their deportment on the protests of the American Revolution. Supporters of the excise argued that there was a difference between taxation without representation in colonial America, and a tax laid by the elected representatives of the American people.^[34]

Older accounts of the Whiskey Rebellion portrayed it as being confined to western Pennsylvania, yet there was opposition to the whiskey tax in the western counties of every other state in Appalachia (Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia).^[35] The whiskey tax went uncollected throughout the frontier country of Kentucky, where no one could be convinced to enforce the police or prosecute evaders.^{[36] [37]} In 1792, Hamilton advocated military action to suppress violent resistance in western N Carolina, merely Attorney General Edmund Randolph argued that there was bereft evidence to legally justify such a reaction.^[38]

In August 1792, a second convention was held in Pittsburgh to discuss resistance to the whiskey revenue enhancement. This meeting was more radical than the first convention; moderates such equally Brackenridge and Findley were not in attendance. Futurity Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin was ane moderate who did nourish, to his later regret.^[39] A militant group known equally the Mingo Creek Association dominated the convention and issued radical demands. As some of them had done in the American Revolution, they raised liberty poles, formed committees of correspondence, and took control of the local militia. They created an extralegal court and discouraged lawsuits for debt drove and foreclosures.^[forty]

Hamilton regarded the 2d Pittsburgh convention as a serious threat to the operation of the laws of the federal authorities. In September 1792, he sent Pennsylvania tax official George Clymer to western Pennsylvania to investigate. Clymer only increased tensions with a impuissant endeavor at traveling in disguise and attempting to intimidate local officials. His somewhat exaggerated study profoundly influenced the decisions made by the Washington assistants.^[41] Washington and Hamilton viewed resistance to federal laws in Pennsylvania as particularly embarrassing, since the national upper-case letter was then located in the same state. On his ain initiative, Hamilton drafted a presidential proclamation denouncing resistance to the excise laws and submitted it to Attorney General Randolph, who toned down some of the language. Washington signed the proclamation on September 15, 1792, and it was published as a broadsheet and printed in many newspapers.^[42]

Federal tax inspector for western Pennsylvania Full general John Neville was adamant to enforce the excise law.^[43] He was a prominent politician and wealthy planter—and likewise a large-calibration distiller. He had initially opposed the whiskey revenue enhancement, but subsequently changed his mind, a reversal that angered some western Pennsylvanians.^[44] In August 1792, Neville rented a room in Pittsburgh for his tax role, but the landlord turned him out subsequently existence threatened with violence by the Mingo Creek Association.^[45] From this betoken on, tax collectors were not the simply people targeted in Pennsylvania; those who cooperated with federal revenue enhancement officials also faced harassment. Anonymous notes and newspaper manufactures signed past "Tom the Tinker" threatened those who complied with the whiskey taxation.^[46] Those who failed to heed the warnings might have their barns burned or their stills destroyed.^[47]

Resistance to the excise tax continued through 1793 in the borderland counties of Appalachia. Opposition remained peculiarly strident in western Pennsylvania.^[48] In June, Neville was burned in figure by a crowd of about 100 people in Washington County.^[49] On the dark of November 22, 1793, men broke into the home of tax collector Benjamin Wells in Fayette County. Wells was, similar Neville, one of the wealthier men in the region.^[50] At gunpoint, the intruders forced him to give up his committee.^[48] President Washington offered a reward for the abort of the assailants, to no avail.^[51]

In addition to the unrest in Fayette county, on August nine, 1794, 30 men surrounded the house of William McCleery, the local revenue enhancement collector in Morgantown, Virginia, as retaliation for the new whiskey taxes. McCleery felt threatened enough by the angry mob to disguise himself as a slave, abscond from his home and swim across the river to safety. The subsequent 3-day siege of Morgantown by outsiders and townspeople led state authorities to fear that the events would influence other frontier counties to bring together the anti-tax movement.^[52]

Insurrection

In his 1796 volume, Congressman William Findley argued that Alexander Hamilton had deliberately provoked the Whiskey Rebellion.

The resistance came to a climax in 1794. In May of that yr, federal commune attorney William Rawle issued subpoenas for more than than lx distillers in Pennsylvania who had not paid the excise tax.^[53] Under the police force then in effect, distillers who received these writs would be obligated to travel to Philadelphia to announced in federal court. For farmers on the western borderland, such a journeying was expensive, time-consuming, and beyond their ways.^[54] At the urging of William Findley, Congress modified this law on June 5, 1794, allowing excise trials to be held in local country courts.^[55] But past that time, U.S. align David Lenox had already been sent to serve the writs summoning delinquent distillers to Philadelphia. Attorney Full general William Bradford afterwards maintained that the writs were meant to compel compliance with the law, and that the authorities did not actually intend to hold trials in Philadelphia.^[56]

The timing of these events later proved to exist controversial. Findley was a bitter political foe of Hamilton, and he maintained in his book on the insurrection that the treasury secretary had deliberately provoked the uprising by issuing the subpoenas just before the constabulary was fabricated less onerous.^[57] In 1963, historian Jacob Cooke, an editor of Hamilton's papers, regarded this charge as "preposterous", calling it a "conspiracy thesis" that overstated Hamilton's control of the federal government.^[58] In 1986, historian Thomas Slaughter argued that the outbreak of the insurrection at this moment was due to "a string of ironic coincidences", although "the question almost motives must always remain".^[59] In 2006, William Hogeland argued that Hamilton, Bradford, and Rawle intentionally pursued a course of activity that would provoke "the kind of violence that would justify federal military suppression".^[lx] According to Hogeland, Hamilton had been working towards this moment since the Newburgh Crisis in 1783, where he conceived of using military force to trounce popular resistance to direct taxation for the purpose of promoting national unity and enriching the creditor course at the expense of common taxpayers.^[61] Historian S. Eastward. Morison believed that Hamilton, in general, wished to enforce the excise police "more equally a measure out of social subject than as a source of revenue".^[62]

Battle of Bower Hill

Federal Marshal Lenox delivered most of the writs without incident. On July 15, he was joined on his rounds past General Neville, who had offered to human activity as his guide in Allegheny County.^[63] That evening, warning shots were fired at the men at the Miller farm, about ten mi (16 km) south of Pittsburgh. Neville returned home while Lenox retreated to Pittsburgh.^[64]

On July xvi, at least thirty Mingo Creek militiamen surrounded Neville's fortified domicile of Bower Hill.^[65] They demanded the surrender of the federal marshal, whom they believed to exist inside. Neville responded by firing a gunshot that mortally wounded Oliver Miller, one of the "rebels".^[66] The rebels opened burn simply were unable to dislodge Neville, who had his slaves' assistance to defend the house.^[67] The rebels retreated to nearby Couch'southward Fort to gather reinforcements.^[68]

The next day, the rebels returned to Bower Hill. Their force had swelled to nearly 600 men, now commanded by Major James McFarlane, a veteran of the Revolutionary War.^[69] Neville had also received reinforcements: 10 U.S. Ground forces soldiers from Pittsburgh under the command of Major Abraham Kirkpatrick, Neville'southward brother-in-police force.^[70] Before the rebel forcefulness arrived, Kirkpatrick had Neville leave the firm and hide in a nearby ravine. David Lenox and General Neville's son Presley Neville likewise returned to the surface area, though they could not get into the house and were captured by the rebels.^[71]

Following some fruitless negotiations, the women and children were allowed to go out the house, and then both sides began firing. After near an 60 minutes, McFarlane called a armistice; according to some, a white flag had been waved in the house. Every bit McFarlane stepped into the open, a shot rang out from the business firm, and he vicious mortally wounded. The enraged rebels so ready burn down to the firm, including the slave quarters, and Kirkpatrick surrendered.^[72] The number of casualties at Bower Hill is unclear; McFarlane and i or two other militiamen were killed; one U.S. soldier may have died from wounds received in the fight.^[73] The rebels sent the U.Due south. soldiers away. Kirkpatrick, Lenox, and Presley Neville were kept as prisoners, just they subsequently escaped.^[74]

March on Pittsburgh

McFarlane was given a hero's funeral on July 18. His "murder", every bit the rebels saw information technology, further radicalized the countryside.^[75] Moderates such as Brackenridge were hard-pressed to restrain the populace. Radical leaders emerged, such as David Bradford, urging tearing resistance. On July 26, a grouping headed by Bradford robbed the U.S. mail as it left Pittsburgh, hoping to discover who in that boondocks opposed them and finding several letters that condemned the rebels. Bradford and his band called for a military assembly to meet at Braddock'southward Field, most 8 mi (13 km) east of Pittsburgh.^[76]

On August 1, about 7,000 people gathered at Braddock's Field.^[77] The crowd consisted primarily of poor people who owned no land, and nigh did not ain whiskey stills. The furor over the whiskey excise had unleashed anger about other economic grievances. By this fourth dimension, the victims of violence were often wealthy property owners who had no connection to the whiskey revenue enhancement.^[78] Some of the nearly radical protesters wanted to march on Pittsburgh, which they called "Sodom", loot the homes of the wealthy, then fire the boondocks to the ground.^[79] Others wanted to assault Fort Fayette. There was praise for the French Revolution and calls for bringing the guillotine to America. David Bradford, it was said, was comparison himself to Robespierre, a leader of the French Reign of Terror.^[80]

At Braddock's Field, there was talk of declaring independence from the United states of america and of joining with Spain or Great Britain. Radicals flew a especially designed flag that proclaimed their independence. The flag had six stripes, ane for each canton represented at the gathering: the Pennsylvania counties of Allegheny, Bedford, Fayette, Washington, and Westmoreland, and Virginia's Ohio Canton.^[81]

Pittsburgh citizens helped to defuse the threat by banishing three men whose intercepted letters had given law-breaking to the rebels, and past sending a delegation to Braddock's Field that expressed support for the gathering.^[82] Brackenridge prevailed upon the oversupply to limit the protest to a defiant march through the town. In Pittsburgh, Major Kirkpatrick's barns were burned, but zippo else.^[83]

Meeting at Whiskey Point

Whiskey Point

Pennsylvania Historical Marker
Location	Main Street between First Street & Park Artery Monongahela
Coordinates	xl°12′01″North 79°55′21″W  /  40.2002°Due north 79.9226°W  / twoscore.2002; -79.9226
PHMC dedicated	May 26, 1949[84]

A convention was held on Baronial fourteen of 226 whiskey rebels from the six counties, held at Parkison'southward Ferry (now known as Whiskey Point) in present-day Monongahela. The convention considered resolutions that were drafted past Brackenridge, Gallatin, David Bradford, and an eccentric preacher named Herman Husband, a delegate from Bedford Canton. Husband was a well-known local figure and a radical champion of republic who had taken part in the Regulator movement in Northward Carolina 25 years earlier.^[85] The Parkison'southward Ferry convention also appointed a committee to meet with the peace commissioners who had been sent westward by President Washington.^[86] In that location, Gallatin presented an eloquent oral communication in favor of peace and against proposals from Bradford to farther revolt.^[84]

Federal response

President Washington was confronted with what appeared to be an armed insurrection in western Pennsylvania, and he proceeded cautiously while determined to maintain governmental potency. He did not want to alienate public opinion, so he asked his chiffonier for written opinions about how to bargain with the crisis. The cabinet recommended the use of force, except for Secretarial assistant of Country Edmund Randolph who urged reconciliation.^[87] Washington did both: he sent commissioners to run across with the rebels while raising a militia army. Washington privately doubted that the commissioners could accomplish anything, and believed that a military trek would be needed to suppress further violence.^[88] For this reason, historians have sometimes charged that the peace committee was sent only for the sake of appearances, and that the apply of force was never in doubt.^[89] Historians Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick argued that the military machine expedition was "itself a office of the reconciliation process", since a testify of overwhelming forcefulness would make further violence less likely.^[xc]

Meanwhile, Hamilton began publishing essays under the name of "Tully" in Philadelphia newspapers, denouncing mob violence in western Pennsylvania and advocating military action. Democratic-Republican Societies had been formed throughout the country, and Washington and Hamilton believed that they were the source of civic unrest. "Historians are not still agreed on the exact part of the societies" in the Whiskey Rebellion, wrote historian Mark Spencer in 2003, "merely there was a degree of overlap between society membership and the Whiskey Rebels".^[91]

Before troops could be raised, the Militia Act of 1792 required a justice of the The states Supreme Court to certify that law enforcement was beyond the control of local authorities. On Baronial 4, 1794, Justice James Wilson delivered his opinion that western Pennsylvania was in a country of rebellion.^[92] On August seven, Washington issued a presidential declaration announcing, with "the deepest regret", that the militia would be chosen out to suppress the rebellion. He allowable insurgents in western Pennsylvania to disperse by September 1.^[93]

Negotiations

In early Baronial 1794, Washington dispatched 3 commissioners to the westward, all of them Pennsylvanians: Chaser General William Bradford, Justice Jasper Yeates of the Pennsylvania Supreme Courtroom, and Senator James Ross. Beginning on August 21, the commissioners met with a commission of westerners that included Brackenridge and Gallatin. The government commissioners told the committee that it must unanimously hold to renounce violence and submit to U.S. laws and that a pop plebiscite must be held to determine if the local people supported the determination. Those who agreed to these terms would exist given amnesty from farther prosecution.^[94]

The committee was divided between radicals and moderates, and narrowly passed a resolution agreeing to submit to the government's terms. The popular plebiscite was held on September 11 and also produced mixed results. Some townships overwhelmingly supported submitting to U.S. law, but opposition to the government remained strong in areas where poor and landless people predominated.^[95] On September 24, 1794, Washington received a recommendation from the commissioners that in their judgment, "(it was) ... necessary that the civil authority should exist aided by a military forcefulness in order to secure a due execution of the laws..."^[96] On September 25, Washington issued a proclamation summoning the New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia militias into service and warned that anyone who aided the insurgents did so at their own peril.^{[96] [97]} The trend was towards submission, however, and westerners dispatched representatives William Findley and David Redick to meet with Washington and to halt the progress of the oncoming army. Washington and Hamilton declined, arguing that violence was likely to re-emerge if the ground forces turned back.^[95]

Militia expedition

Under the authority of the recently passed federal militia law, the state militias were called upwardly by the governors of New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania. The federalized militia force of 12,950 men was a large regular army by American standards of the time, comparable to Washington'southward armies during the Revolution.^[98] Relatively few men volunteered for militia service, so a draft was used to make full out the ranks. Draft evasion was widespread, and conscription efforts resulted in protests and riots, fifty-fifty in eastern areas. Three counties in eastern Virginia were the scenes of armed draft resistance. In Maryland, Governor Thomas Sim Lee sent 800 men to quash an anti-draft riot in Hagerstown; about 150 people were arrested.^[99]

Photograph of Albert Gallatin, who spoke publicly to rebel groups about the demand for moderation

Liberty poles were raised in various places as the militia was recruited, worrying federal officials. A liberty pole was raised in Carlisle, Pennsylvania on September xi, 1794.^[100] The federalized militia arrived in that town later that month and rounded up suspected pole-raisers. 2 civilians were killed in these operations. On September 29, an unarmed male child was shot by an officer whose pistol accidentally fired. Ii days later, an "Itinerant Person" was "Bayoneted" to death by a soldier while resisting arrest (the human being had tried to wrest the rifle from the soldier he confronted; it is possible he had been a fellow member of a 500-stiff Irish work crew nearby who were "digging, a canal into the Sculkill" [sic]; at least one of that work gang'due south members protested the killing then vigorously that he was "put under guard").^[101] President Washington ordered the abort of the two soldiers and had them turned over to civilian regime. A state judge determined that the deaths had been adventitious, and the soldiers were released.^[102]

Washington left Philadelphia (which at that time was the capital of the U.s.) on September 30 to review the progress of the military expedition.^[96] Co-ordinate to historian Joseph Ellis, this was "the first and but fourth dimension a sitting American president led troops in the field".^[103]

Along the way he traveled to Reading, Pennsylvania on his way to encounter upwardly with the residuum of the militia he ordered mobilized at Carlisle.^[96] On the second of October, Washington left Reading, Pennsylvania heading westward to Womelsdorf in club to "view the (Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company) canal...".^[96] Revolutionary war and Siege of Yorktown veteran, Colonel Jonathan Forman (1755–1809) led the Third Infantry Regiment of New Jersey troops against the Whiskey Rebellion and wrote about his come across with Washington:^[104]

Oct 3d Marched early in the morning for Harrisburgh [sic], where nosotros arrived virtually 12 O'clock. Near 1 O'Clock recd. information of the Presidents approach on which, I had the regiment paraded, timely for his reception, & considerably to my satisfaction. Beingness later on invited to his quarters he made enquiry into the circumstances of the man [an incident between an "Itinerant Person" and "an Erstwhile Soldier" mentioned earlier in the periodical (p. iii)] & seemed satisfied with the data.^[101]

Washington met with the western representatives in Bedford, Pennsylvania on Oct 9 before going to Fort Cumberland in Maryland to review the southern wing of the army.^[105] He was convinced that the federalized militia would meet little resistance, and he placed the army under the command of the Virginia Governor Henry "Lighthorse Harry" Lee, a hero of the Revolutionary State of war. Washington returned to Philadelphia; Hamilton remained with the army as noncombatant adviser.^[106]

Daniel Morgan, the victor of the Battle of Cowpens during the American Revolution, was called upwards to lead a force to suppress the protest. Information technology was at this time (1794) that Morgan was promoted to Major Full general. Serving under Full general "Lite-Horse Harry" Lee, Morgan led one wing of the militia army into Western Pennsylvania.^[107] The massive show of force brought an end to the protests without a shot existence fired. Afterwards the insurgence had been suppressed, Morgan commanded the remnant of the army that remained until 1795 in Pennsylvania, some 1,200 militiamen, one of whom was Meriwether Lewis.^[108]

Aftermath

The insurrection collapsed as the federal ground forces marched west into western Pennsylvania in October 1794. Some of the nearly prominent leaders of the insurrection, such as David Bradford, fled due west to safety. It took six months for those who were charged to be tried. Nearly were acquitted due to mistaken identity, unreliable testimony and lack of witnesses. 2 were sentenced to hang, see below.

Immediately before the arrests "...equally many as 2,000 of [the rebels]...had fled into the mountains, beyond the reach of the militia. It was a bang-up disappointment to Hamilton, who had hoped to bring rebel leaders such every bit David Bradford to trial in Philadelphia...and peradventure see them hanged for treason. Instead, when the militia at terminal turned dorsum, out of all the suspects they had seized a mere 20 were selected to serve as examples, They were at worst bit players in the uprising, but they were ameliorate than zero."^[109]

The captured participants and the Federal militia arrived in Philadelphia on Christmas 24-hour interval. Some artillery was fired and church bells were heard as "... a huge throng lined Broad Street to cheer the troops and mock the rebels ... [Presley] Neville said he 'could non help feeling sorry for them. The captured rebels were paraded downwards Broad Street being 'humiliated, bedraggled, [and] half-starved...' "^[109]

Other accounts describe the indictment of 24 men for high treason.^[110] Near of the accused had eluded capture, so just ten men stood trial for treason in federal courtroom.^[111] Of these, merely Philip Wigle^[114] and John Mitchell were bedevilled. Wigle had browbeaten up a tax collector and burned his business firm; Mitchell was a simpleton who had been convinced by David Bradford to rob the U.South. mail. These, the only 2 convicted of treason and sentenced to expiry by hanging, were afterward pardoned by President Washington.^{[109] [115] [116]} Pennsylvania land courts were more successful in prosecuting lawbreakers, securing numerous convictions for assault and rioting.^[117]

In his 7th Country of the Matrimony Address, Washington explained his decision to pardon Mitchell and Wigle. Hamilton and John Jay drafted the address, every bit they had others, before Washington made the concluding edit:-

"The misled take abandoned their errors," he stated. "For though I shall always think information technology a sacred duty to practise with firmness and energy the constitutional powers with which I am vested, yet it appears to me no less consequent with the public good than information technology is with my personal feelings to mingle in the operations of Government every degree of moderation and tenderness which the national justice, dignity, and safety may permit"^{[118] [119]}

While violent opposition to the whiskey tax concluded, political opposition to the revenue enhancement continued. Opponents of internal taxes rallied around the candidacy of Thomas Jefferson and helped him defeat President John Adams in the election of 1800. By 1802, Congress repealed the distilled spirits excise tax and all other internal Federal taxes. Until the War of 1812, the Federal government would rely solely on import tariffs for revenue, which quickly grew with the Nation's expanding foreign trade.^[24]

Legacy

The James Miller Firm on the Oliver Miller Homestead located in South Park Township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. In 1794, the first fired gunshots of the Whiskey Rebellion occurred on the property when acquirement officers served a writ on William Miller. Shots were fired only the officers were not injured. Later, William was pardoned.

The Washington administration'due south suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion met with widespread popular blessing.^[120] The episode demonstrated that the new national authorities had the willingness and power to suppress vehement resistance to its laws. It was, therefore, viewed by the Washington assistants equally a success, a view that has generally been endorsed by historians.^[121] The Washington administration and its supporters ordinarily did not mention, notwithstanding, that the whiskey excise remained difficult to collect, and that many westerners continued to turn down to pay the tax.^[35] The events contributed to the germination of political parties in the United states of america, a process already underway.^[122] The whiskey tax was repealed later on Thomas Jefferson'due south Republican Party came to power in 1801, which opposed the Federalist Party of Hamilton and Washington.^[123]

The Rebellion raised the question of what kinds of protests were permissible under the new Constitution. Legal historian Christian G. Fritz argued that there was non yet a consensus most sovereignty in the Us, fifty-fifty later ratification of the Constitution. Federalists believed that the government was sovereign because it had been established by the people; radical protest deportment were permissible during the American Revolution but were no longer legitimate, in their thinking. But the Whiskey Rebels and their defenders believed that the Revolution had established the people as a "collective sovereign", and the people had the collective right to change or claiming the authorities through extra-constitutional ways.^[124]

Historian Steven Boyd argued that the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion prompted anti-Federalist westerners to finally have the Constitution and to seek change by voting for Republicans rather than resisting the authorities. Federalists, for their part, came to have the public'due south role in governance and no longer challenged the liberty of associates and the right to petition.^[125]

In popular civilization

Soon after the Whiskey Rebellion, actress-playwright Susanna Rowson wrote a phase musical well-nigh the insurrection entitled The Volunteers, with music past composer Alexander Reinagle. The play is now lost, only the songs survive and suggest that Rowson's interpretation was pro-Federalist. The musical celebrates as American heroes the militiamen who put down the rebellion, the "volunteers" of the championship.^[126] President Washington and Martha Washington attended a operation of the play in Philadelphia in Jan 1795.^[127]

W. C. Fields recorded a comedy rail in Les Paul'due south studio in 1946, soon before his death, entitled "The Temperance Lecture" for the album West. C. Fields ... His Merely Recording Plus 8 Songs by Mae West. The flake discussed Washington and his role in putting downward the Whiskey Rebellion, and Fields wondered aloud whether "George put down a little of the vile stuff too."^[128]

50. Neil Smith wrote the alternating history novel The Probability Broach in 1980 equally function of his North American Confederacy Series. In it, Albert Gallatin joins the rebellion in 1794 to benefit the farmers, rather than the fledgling United states of america Authorities equally he did in reality. This results in the rebellion becoming a 2d American Revolution. This eventually leads to George Washington existence overthrown and executed for treason, the abrogation of the Constitution, and Gallatin beingness proclaimed the 2d president and serving as president until 1812.^{[129] [130]}

David Liss' 2008 novel The Whiskey Rebels covers many of the circumstances during 1788–92 that led to the 1794 Rebellion. The fictional protagonists are bandage against an assortment of historical persons, including Alexander Hamilton, William Duer, Anne Bingham, Hugh Henry Brackenridge, Aaron Burr, and Philip Freneau.

In 2011, the Whiskey Rebellion Festival was started in Washington, Pennsylvania. This annual upshot is held in July and includes live music, food, and celebrated reenactments, featuring the "tar and feathering" of the taxation collector.^{[131] [132]}

Other works which include events of the Whiskey Rebellion:

• The Latimers: A Tale of the Western Insurrection of 1794 by clergyman Henry Christopher McCook (1898)
• The Delectable Country by Leland Baldwin (1939)
• "Copper Kettle", a song attributed to A.F.Beddoes,^[133] and performed on tape by Chet Atkins, Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, and Gillian Welch
• Margery Evendern'due south young developed novel Wilderness Boy (1955)

See also

• American Whiskey Trail
• "Copper Kettle", song referencing the Rebellion
• Chips's Rebellion
• Jean Bonnet Tavern
• List of incidents of civil unrest in the Us
• Moonshine
• Shays' Rebellion
• Tax resistance in the United States
• Fort Gaddis – gathering spot in Fayette Canton, Pennsylvania during Rebellion and site of the raising of a freedom pole

Notes

1. ^ Slaughter, 210–14, 219.
2. ^ Robert Westward. Coakley, The Role of Federal Military Forces in Domestic Disorders, 1789–1878 (DIANE Publishing, 1996), 67.
3. ^ Risen, Clay (December 6, 2013). "How America Learned to Dearest Whiskey". The Atlantic . Retrieved April 24, 2020.
4. ^ Rorabaugh, W.J. The Alcoholic Democracy: An American Tradition, 1979. Oxford University Printing, 53.
5. ^ Howlett, Leon. The Kentucky Bourbon Experience: A Visual Tour of Kentucky'south Bourbon Distilleries, 2012, vii.
6. ^ Carol Berkin, A Sovereign People: The Crises of the 1790s and the Nascence of American Nationalism (2017) pp. 7–80.
7. ^ Chernow, 297.
8. ^ Chernow, 327–30.
9. ^ Chernow, 341.
10. ^ Hogeland, 27.
11. ^ Chernow, 342–43; Hogeland, 63.
12. ^ Slaughter, 100.
13. ^ Slaughter, 105; Hogeland, 64.
14. ^ American Country Papers [Finance: Book one], 110
15. ^ "ExplorePAHistory.com – Stories from PA History". Retrieved February eleven, 2017.
16. ^ Slaughter, 97.
17. ^ Hogeland, 66.
18. ^ Hogeland, 68.
19. ^ Hogeland, 67; Holt, 30.
20. ^ Slaughter, 147–49; Hogeland, 68–70.
21. ^ Hogeland, 68–69; Holt, 30.
22. ^ Slaughter, 148.
23. ^ Slaughter, 148; Hogeland, 69.
24. ^ ^{a b c} Hoover, Michael. "The Whiskey Rebellion". Regulations & Rulings Division, Alcohol and Tobacco Taxation and Trade Bureau, US Section of the Treasury. Retrieved February 17, 2017. (no appointment) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
25. ^ Slaughter, 108.
26. ^ Slaughter, 110.
27. ^ Slaughter, 206.
28. ^ Hogeland, 23–25; Slaughter, 113.
29. ^ Hogeland, 24.
30. ^ Hogeland, 114–fifteen.
31. ^ Slaughter, 113. Hogeland dates the attack on Johnson to September 7, the night before the Pittsburgh convention; Hogeland, 24.
32. ^ Hogeland, 103–04.
33. ^ Slaughter, 114.
34. ^ Slaughter, 103.
35. ^ ^{a b} Mary K. Bonsteel Tachau, "A New Look at the Whiskey Rebellion", in Boyd, The Whiskey Rebellion: Past and Present Perspectives, 97–118.
36. ^ Slaughter, 117.
37. ^ Gross, David Thou. (2014). 99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns. Spotter Line Press. pp. 77–78. ISBN978-1-4905-7274-1.
38. ^ Slaughter, 119; Hogeland, 124.
39. ^ Hogeland, 122–23.
40. ^ Hogeland, 117–xix; 122–23.
41. ^ Slaughter, 125–27.
42. ^ Slaughter, 119–23.
43. ^ Slaughter, 151–53.
44. ^ Hogeland, 97, 102.
45. ^ Hogeland, 119–24.
46. ^ Gross, David Thou. (2014). 99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns. Watch Line Press. p. 72. ISBN978-i-4905-7274-1.
47. ^ Hogeland, 130–31.
48. ^ ^{a b} Slaughter, 151.
49. ^ Slaughter, 150.
50. ^ Slaughter, 153.
51. ^ Slaughter, 165.
52. ^ Barksdale, K. T., & Lee, H. (2003). Our Rebellious Neighbors: Virginia's Border Counties during Pennsylvania's Whiskey Rebellion. The Virginia Mag of History and Biography, pages 17-18, 111(1), 5-32., JStor link
53. ^ Slaughter, 177; Cooke, 328.
54. ^ Hogeland, 142.
55. ^ Slaughter, 170.
56. ^ Slaughter, 182.
57. ^ Cooke, 321.
58. ^ Cooke, 321–22.
59. ^ Slaughter, 183.
60. ^ Hogeland, 124.
61. ^ Hogeland, William (July 3, 2006). "Why the Whiskey Rebellion Is Worth Recalling Now". History News Network. Archived from the original on August x, 2010. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
62. ^ Southward. Due east. Morison, The Oxford History of the Us 1783–1917 (London: Oxford University Press, 1927), 182.
63. ^ Slaughter, 177.
64. ^ Hogeland, 146.
65. ^ The number of militiamen in the showtime attack on Bower Colina varies in contemporary accounts; Hogeland, 268.
66. ^ Slaughter, 179; Hogeland, 147–48.
67. ^ Slaughter, iii.
68. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (June 11, 2014). The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Early American Republic, 1783–1812: A Political, Social, and Military History [3 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Armed forces History. ABC-CLIO. p. 52. ISBN978-1-59884-157-ii . Retrieved February 10, 2017.
69. ^ Hogeland, 150–51.
70. ^ Slaughter, 179; Hogeland, 152.
71. ^ Hogeland, 153.
72. ^ Hogeland, 153–54; Slaughter, 3, 179–80.
73. ^ Slaughter, 180.
74. ^ Hogeland, 155–56.
75. ^ Slaughter, 181–83.
76. ^ Slaughter, 183–85.
77. ^ Slaughter, 186; Hogeland, 172.
78. ^ Slaughter, 186–87.
79. ^ Slaughter, 187.
80. ^ Slaughter, 188–89; Hogeland, 169.
81. ^ Holt, x. Holt writes that earlier historians had misidentified the six counties represented by the flag.
82. ^ Slaughter, 185.
83. ^ Slaughter, 187–88; Hogeland, 170–77.
84. ^ ^{a b} "Whiskey Indicate (Albert Gallatin) Historical Marking". Explore PA history. Retrieved January nine, 2017.
85. ^ Holt, 54–57.
86. ^ Slaughter, 188–89.
87. ^ Elkins & McKitrick, 479.
88. ^ Slaughter, 197–99.
89. ^ Slaughter, 199; Holt, 11.
90. ^ Elkins & McKitrick, 481.
91. ^ Mark G. Spencer, "Autonomous-Republican Societies", in Peter Knight, ed., Conspiracy Theories in American History (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO Printing, 2003), 1:221.
92. ^ Slaughter, 192–93, 196; Elkins & McKitrick, 479.
93. ^ Slaughter, 196.
94. ^ Slaughter, 199–200; Hogeland, 199.
95. ^ ^{a b} Slaughter, 203.
96. ^ ^{a b c d east} Washington, G.; Jackson, D.; Twohig, D. (1976). The diaries of George Washington. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Retrieved June 30, 2018.
97. ^ Hogeland, 205–06.
98. ^ Chernow, 475–76; Hogeland, 189.
99. ^ Slaughter, 210–14.
100. ^ Slaughter, 208.
101. ^ ^{a b} Forman, Jonathan. "Journal of Jonathan Forman (7 pgs.), September 21, 1794 – October 25, 1794: Box ane, Binder ane Jonathan Forman Papers, September 21, 1794 – October 25, 1794, DAR.1982.01, Darlington Collection, Special Collections Section, Academy of Pittsburgh" (PDF) . Retrieved August 2, 2017.
102. ^ Slaughter, 205–06; Hogeland, 213.
103. ^ Ellis, His Excellency, George Washington, 225.
104. ^ Manella, Angela. "Jonathan Forman Papers Finding Aid". Archive Service Center, Academy of Pittsburgh. Retrieved April 4, 2013.
105. ^ Slaughter, 215–16.
106. ^ Slaughter, 216.
107. ^ Higginbotham, pp. 189–91.
108. ^ Higginbotham, pp. 193–98.
109. ^ ^{a b c} Craughwell & Phelps 2008.
110. ^ Richard A. Ifft, "Treason in the Early on Democracy: The Federal Courts, Pop Protest, and Federalism During the Whiskey Insurrection", in Boyd, The Whiskey Rebellion: By and Present Perspectives, 172.
111. ^ Ifft, 172.
112. ^ Slaughter pp. 290–91.
113. ^ Craughwell, Thomas J.; Phelps, M. William (2008). Failures of the Presidents: From the Whiskey Rebellion and War of 1812 to the Bay of Pigs and War in Iraq . Fair Winds Press. p. 22. ISBN978-1-61673-431-2.
114. ^ Sources evidence a diverseness of spellings for his surname, including Vigol and Wigal.^{[112] [113]}
115. ^ Slaughter, 219.
116. ^ Hogeland, 238; Ifft, 176.
117. ^ Ifft, 175–76.
118. ^ Fitzpatrick, John C. (Jan 1939). The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources 1745-1799 Volume 34 October eleven, 1794-March 29, 1796. ISBN9781623764449.
119. ^ "The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources 1745"
120. ^ Elkins & McKitrick, 481–84.
121. ^ Boyd, "Popular Rights", 78.
122. ^ Slaughter, 221; Boyd, "Popular Rights", 80.
123. ^ Hogeland, 242.
124. ^ Fritz, Christian G. Fritz (Apr 27, 2009). American Sovereigns: the People and America'southward Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War. Cambridge Academy Printing. ISBN978-0-521-12560-iv.
125. ^ Boyd, "Popular Rights", eighty–83.
126. ^ Vickers, Anita (2009). The New Nation. American Popular Culture Through History. p. 213. ISBN978-0-313-31264-9.
127. ^ Branson, Susan (2001). These Fiery Frenchified Dames: Women and Political Culture in Early National Philadelphia. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 181.
128. ^ Smith, Ronald 50. (1998). Comedy Stars at 78 RPM: Biographies and Discographies of 89 American and British Recording Artists, 1896–1946. McFarland. p. 59. ISBN978-0-7864-0462-9.
129. ^ John J. Pierce, When globe views collide: a study in imagination and evolution (Greenwood Press, 1989), 163.
130. ^ Peter Josef Mühlbauer, "Frontiers and dystopias: Libertarian ideology in science fiction", in Dieter Plehwe et al., eds., Neoliberal Hegemony: A Global Critique (Taylor & Francis, 2006), 162.
131. ^ "Washington Co. Festival Marks Whiskey Rebellion". WPXI. Baronial i, 2011. Retrieved March 23, 2015.
132. ^ "2017 Whiskey Rebellion Festival". Whiskey Rebellion Festival. Archived from the original on Apr 2, 2015. Retrieved February eleven, 2017.
133. ^ Fourth dimension Magazine annal, Friday, November 30, 1962; Quote:

     Sir: I am extremely thrilled that y'all printed my vocal in your folk singing commodity. I dearest music and Joan Baez. Copper Kettle was written in 1953 as part of my opera Go Lightly Stranger. A. F. Beddoe, Staten Isle, N.Y.

Bibliography

• Baldwin, Leland D. Whiskey Rebels: The Story of a Frontier Insurgence. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1968. ISBN 978-0822951513
• Boyd, Steven R., ed. The Whiskey Rebellion: By and Present Perspectives. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1985. ISBN 0-313-24534-seven.
• Boyd, Steven R. "The Whiskey Rebellion, Pop Rights, and the Meaning of the First Amendment." In West. Thomas Mainwaring, ed. The Whiskey Rebellion and the Trans-Appalachian Frontier, 73–84. Washington, Pennsylvania: Washington and Jefferson College, 1994.
• Chernow, Ron. Alexander Hamilton. New York: Penguin Printing, 2004. ISBN ane-59420-009-2.
• Cooke, Jacob E. "The Whiskey Insurrection: A Re-Evaluation." Pennsylvania History 30 (July 1963), 316–64.
• Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric L. McKitrick. The Historic period of Federalism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-19-509381-0
• Hogeland, William. The Whiskey Rebellion: George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and the Borderland Rebels Who Challenged America'due south Newfound Sovereignty. New York: Scribner, 2006. ISBN 0-7432-5490-2.
• Holt, Wythe. "The Whiskey Rebellion of 1794: A Autonomous Working-Course Insurrection" (PDF). Paper presented at The Georgia Workshop in Early American History and Culture, 2004.
• Kohn, Richard H. "The Washington Assistants'southward Decision to Crush the Whiskey Rebellion." Periodical of American History 59 (December 1972), 567–84.
• Slaughter, Thomas P. The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier Epilogue to the American Revolution. Oxford University Printing, 1986. ISBN 0-19-505191-2.

Further reading

• Baldwin, Leland. Whiskey Rebels: The Story of a Borderland Insurgence. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Printing, 1939.
• Berkin, Carol. A Sovereign People: The Crises of the 1790s and the Birth of American Nationalism (2017) pp. 7–80. excerpt
• Bouton, Terry. Taming Democracy: "The People," the Founders, and the Troubled Catastrophe of the American Revolution. Oxford & New York: Oxford Academy Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-530665-1.
• Clouse, Jerry Allan. The Whiskey Rebellion: Southwestern Pennsylvania'southward Borderland People Test the American Constitution (Agency of Historic Preservation, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1994)
• Krom, Cynthia L., and Stephanie Krom. "The Whiskey Tax of 1791 and The Consequent Insurrection: 'A Wicked and Happy Tumult'." Accounting Historians Journal forty.2 (2013): 91-113. online
• McClure, James P. "'Permit The states Exist Independent': David Bradford and the Whiskey Coup." Western Pennsylvania History 74.2 (1991): 72-86. online
• Snyder, Jeffrey Due west., and Thomas C. Hammond. "'So That'south What the Whiskey Rebellion Was!': Educational activity Early US History With GIS." History Teacher 45.three (2012): 447-455. online
• Yoo, John. "George Washington and the Executive Power." University of St. Thomas Journal of Law and Public Policy v (2010): 1-35. online Archived April 26, 2019, at the Wayback Automobile

Sources from 1790s

• Brackenridge, Henry Marie. History of the Western Insurrection in Western Pennsylvania ... Pittsburgh, 1859.
• Brackenridge, Hugh Henry. Incidents of the Insurrection in Western Pennsylvania in the Yr 1794. Philadelphia, 1795. A 1972 edition has notes by Daniel Marder.
• Findley, William. History of the Insurrection in the 4 Western Counties of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, 1796.

External links

• selected primary sources
• Text of the 1791 excise deed from the Library of Congress
• George Washington'southward Proclamation of September fifteen, 1792, alarm against obstacle of the excise police force, from the Avalon Project at Yale Law School
• Washington's Annunciation of Baronial 7, 1794, announcing the preliminary raising of militia and commanding the insurgents in western Pennsylvania to disperse
• Washington's Proclamation of September 25, 1794, announcing the commencement of armed services operations
• Washington's 6th Almanac Message, November 19, 1794. Washington dedicated nearly of this almanac message to the Whiskey Rebellion.
• The diaries of George Washington, Book half dozen, 1790–1799, Washington's diary entries for the militia expedition to Carlisle (September xxx-October 21, 1794.)
• Thompson, Charles D. Jr. "Whiskey and Geography" Southern Spaces, May 10, 2011. Explores the origins of whiskey-making and the resistance to a whiskey revenue enhancement in Franklin County, Virginia.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion

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